TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1. TERMINOLOGY Population, Sample, and Element Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics Parameter vs. Statistic Sampling Error vs. Selection Bias Imprecision vs. Bias (Inaccuracy) Validity vs. Reliability Independent vs. Dependent Variables Normal (Gaussian), Skewed and Kurtotic curves Multiplication and Addition Rules of Probability Statistical Significance vs. Clinical Significance Statistical Abnormality vs. Clinical Abnormality

CHAPTER 2. MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE Mean Median Mode What’s Wrong Here? *#!!

CHAPTER 3. RANGE, VARIATION, AND STANDARD DEVIATION Range Variance Standard Deviation Coefficient of Variation

CHAPTER 4. KINDS OF DATA Nominal Data Ordinal Data Interval Data Ratio Data

PART II. RESEARCH DESIGN

CHAPTER 5. KINDS OF STUDIES Randomized Control Studies Matching Studies Stratified Randomization Studies Blind Studies Prospective (Cohort; Longitudinal) Studies Retrospective (Case-control) Studies Cross-sectional (Prevalence) Studies Experimental vs. Observational Studies Case Series and Case Reports Meta-analysis Crossover, Between-subjects, and Within-subjects Studies Therapeutic Trials

CHAPTER 6. GRAPHING Bar Graphs (Bar Charts) Tables Histograms Line Graphs Cumulative Frequency Curves Box-and-Whiskers Plots Stem-and-Leaf Plots Scattergrams Survival Curves

CHAPTER 7. HYPOTHESIS TESTING The Null and Alternative Hypotheses Rejecting the Null Hypothesis

PART III. STATISTICAL TESTS

Parametric vs. Nonparametric Tests

CHAPTER 8. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS The Z-score

CHAPTER 9. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS Confidence Intervals vs. Hypothesis Testing and P-values

CHAPTER 10. STANDARD ERROR OF THE MEAN The Central Limit Theorem Standard Error of the Mean (SEM)

CHAPTER 11. THE T-TEST The Meaning of the T-Test Comparing Two Samples

CHAPTER 12. ONE-TAILED VS. TWO-TAILED STUDIES

CHAPTER 13. P-ING (PEE-ING) ALL OVER THE PLACE

CHAPTER 14. TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS AND POWER Type I and Type II Errors Power Effect Size Bayesian Thinking Calculation of Sample Size

CHAPTER 15. ANOVA (ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE) ANOVA and F-ratio MANOVA and ANCOVA

CHAPTER 16. CORRELATION AND REGRESSION Correlation Techniques Correlation Coefficient Coefficient of Determination Correlation Does Not Mean Causation Criteria of Causality Regression Kinds of Regression Analysis Regression to the Mean

CHAPTER 17. NONPARAMETRIC TESTS Chi Square Goodness-of-Fit Test Nonparametric Tests That Use Ranking Nonparametric Tests That Do Not Use Ranking

CHAPTER 18. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL TESTS Incidence vs. Prevalence Mortality, Morbidity, and Case Fatality Absolute Risk vs. Relative Risk (RR) Odds and Odds Ratio (Relative Odds) Absolute Risk Reduction (Attributable Risk) vs. Relative Risk Reduction Number Needed to Treat (NNT) Number Needed to Harm (NNH) Sensitivity vs. Specificity Positive and Negative Predictive Values

PART IV. ARE THE RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS CORRECT?

CHAPTER 19. WHAT'S WRONG HERE? *#!! Who Says So? How Does the Researcher Know? What's Missing? Did Someone Change the Subject? Does It Make Sense?

Appendix A. The Z table Appendix B. The T table Appendix C. The Chi-square Table References INDEX